Now that the striking difference between the astronomy of the temperate zone and that of the tropical zone has be established, we are able to envisage a navigation by the stars completely opposed to that of northern latitudes, in the equatorial zone traversed by the Polynesians. So what was beyond the powers of European civilization became possible here. Because the equatorial sky was characterized by large trails of stars, the sailor could link the island he wished to reach with a constellation. So we must conclude he was acquainted with that island, hence the "return trip" theory. A first voyage of exploration would be carried out to discover what island might be suitable for settlement, then its direction in relation to the stars was memorized and finally, they went back to fetch families, animals and plants to make an attempt at living there. These voyages must have lasted several centuries. As they embarked on longer and longer voyages, they improved their canoe-building and food-preservation techniques. In 1976, a reconstituted double canoe attempted to sail from Hawaii to Tahiti, and its success proved that this type of craft is capable of keeping to a prescribed route by beating to windward. If these canoes had only been able to sail in a leeward direction, or merely drift along, there would probably have been no Polynesian settlement before the arrival of the Europeans.

Map showing the gradual settlement of the Polynesian triangle. 

The chronology of the migrations is indicated by different colors. It is interesting to note that the first people to settle in Tahiti came from the Marquesas, two or three centuries later than Easter Is. No date has been given for the last two voyages as opinion is divided on this subject. (according to J.D. Jennings's theory 1979)

The canoes

Of all the artifacts of Polynesian culture, the canoe was probably the most essential, for without it, there would not have been island populations as we know them today.

There is very little known about how the vessels that let these migrants travel across the Pacific were constructed, what they were made of, and what shape they had. We can only suppose that these early navigators sailed these seas, like their descendants, on double-canoes or outriggers. On the other hand, from the time of the discovery of Tahiti in 1767, Europeans were able to give the first descriptions of what they saw. All these voyagers were struck by what an important role the canoe played in the daily life of the Tahitians. 

It was indispensable for fishing, for getting from one island to another and for fighting wars. These small craft, built with stone age tools, were remarkable for their seaworthiness and the techniques of their construction. 

Ancient canoes can be classified according to their design and their means of propulsion: double-canoes and outriggers with paddles or sails. 

Modern shapes, inspired by European boats, are also shown in subsequent illustrations. The vaa, a small single canoe with outrigger and paddles, 5 to 9 meters long, is used for short trips and coastal fishing. The hull is hollowed out from a single tree trunk (like the tamanu) and the outrigger is on the left. The vaa motu, a canoe with an outrigger and a sail, 10 to 13 meters long, is used for fishing and brief voyages. The hull is carved out of one or two trunks and at least one row of boards is spliced above the flat sides. The forward horizontal beam of the outrigger supports a narrow platform allowing a man to act as a counterweight if necessary. The type of sail varies according to the archipelago. 

The tipairua, or double-canoe with sails, used for transport, also known as pahi, when used for voyages, can be up to 25 meters long. This "catamaran" with one or two sails is manned by from four to twenty men, according to its size. We know it was this type of canoe that was designed for making long voyages of discovery. There was room for about sixty passengers and their provisions on board. 

The double-canoe with paddles. With the exception of the tira, used for fishing, this category was restricted to war-canoes. The pahi tamaiare divided into two groups: those with a round bottom intended only for war, and others with a "v-shaped" bottom destined for either war or voyaging.

Two different types of scoops, necessary to bail out the sea water leaking in by the planking seam.
Society Islands, and on the right, Marquesas

Canoe-building

All the materials used, from the framework to the sails, and of course the ropes, were of vegetable origin. 

The illustrations at the end of this text explain the use and preparation of these materials for the different parts of a prototype canoe. As there were no metals, they used wooden, stone, shell, and animal and fishbone tools to carry out the work. 

The trees that were hollowed out to fashion the hull or part of the hull, had to be tall and very straight. Today we can only surmise what these trunks must have been like, as trees of this stature have been completely wiped out. The tamanu, which was used both for masts and planking, is not a very tall tree today, and there are few stands of tou left. The aito is too hard and too heavy to make hulls, the maiore and the purau are not strong enough although their wood is used for making canoes - at least those of traditional design. The pandanus tree is the only one used regularly today in the same way as it was in the past. 

When a large canoe was built, the task was entrusted to specialized workers who had considerable social prestige. The high priests supervised the undertaking and all the work was done to the sound of invocations to the gods. A special shelter was constructed for the hull and other components of the canoe, and alongside, the rigging and sails were woven or plaited. When the finishing touches were complete, the canoe was dedicated to one of the Gods. The launching of the pahi was a public spectacle enjoyed by the king and all the people living in the area. The leading craftsman invoked the aid of the Gods for the occasion, and the canoe, pushed forward by its builders, advanced to the sea over rollers made of coconut trunks. If it was a question of the launching of a sacred canoe, bodies of enemies were placed between rollers. 

In any case, the launching of a canoe was considered to be an outstanding event and it was duly celebrated with magnificent feasts and interminable ceremonies.

Voyage

The Polynesians often spent several weeks or months at sea, covering huge distances in their large voyaging canoes, heading into the trade winds. Their life, therefore, was regulated by the various tasks that guaranteed the group's survival. 

Because of the frequent leaks in the stitched planking of the keels, night and day, the crew had to bail out the catamaran to stop the water increasing the weight of the vessel. When they were becalmed, the men had to anchor themselves to the floats keep the canoes moving by paddling in the right direction. The woven sails, made of sheets of pandanus, were easily damaged and they and their moorings required daily maintenance. 

Right from the outset, stores of fresh, dried or cooked food were collected, as well as animals and saplings of trees the voyagers wished to take to their new island. So they gathered fresh or dried coconuts, sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, sugar cane, mashed breadfruit and dried fish from the lagoon. 

While some fishermen went about stocking up fresh fish, others did the cooking on a fire kept alight permanently in a container of sand. Some canoes even had real ovens capable of cooking several pigs. Fresh water was kept in calabashes and, of course, coconut milk was used to quench their thirst as well.

Food resources

We have now seen how emigrants brought food and animals in common usage with them, in spite of the distances they had to cover. 

These plants, which formed an integral part of their diet, are on the whole, still eaten today. So it was that breadfruit (uru), taro, yams (ufi), sweet potatoes (umara), wild bananas (fei), sugar cane and coconuts spread throughout the islands according to their voyages, and it was the same process for dogs, pigs and chickens. 

Before metal was discovered, horticulturists and fishermen used tools made from wood and stone. Shells, once they had been carved, were turned into many different things: combs and fish hooks, adzes, gouges and fruit-peelers. 

Fire was obtained by rubbing sticks together and food was steamed in an earth-oven dug out of the ground and heated by volcanic rocks covered with leaves and soil. The ahimaa is still used today. 

As they had no root vegetables in the Tuamotus, the islanders ate sea birds' eggs and the fruit of the pandanus to supplement their fish diet. 

It should be noted that Polynesians had no alcoholic drinks and the only anaesthetizing beverage consumed was a drink called kava made out of roots (Piper methysticum) which fermented when chewed, because of the action of saliva.

Fishing

Anyone wanting to take something from the sea had to get permission from the local chief owning the adjoining land, and in return, the latter received a share of the catch. He could also organize collective fishing expeditions for celebrations, or forbid fishing, in order to protect certain species or to build up reserves for a feast. 

Fishing lines were woven by each fisherman and made from the bark of a bush growing in the valleys. Three threads were twisted together and the resulting line was remarkably fine. 

The hooks were usually carved out of mother-of-pearl and shaped with the help of coral files. Their shapes varied according to the fish they wanted to catch; little hooks made of shell or mother-of-pearl were kept for fishing in shallow water. Big fish taken from the barrier reef were lured with large wooden hooks to which a sharp point was added. 

Another type of fishing was practiced in the open sea on the initiative of the local chief. This was fishing for tuna with live bait. It was known as the " tira" method and they employed a double-canoe with a long flexible rod up front. 

For bonito fishing they used bamboo-canes and a short line. The lures fastened to the line were made of mother-of-pearl shaped like little fish with a sharp point and pig hair at the tail end. This kind of hook is still used today. 

Nets woven from bark-fiber were common throughout the whole of French Polynesia.

Another method still in use today is paralyzing fish by using crushed roots or nuts (hutu in Tahitian). The fisherman waves these outside their holes, and the fish stunned by the poison, which is harmless for man, allow themselves to be harpooned. 

Finally we come to the turtle which differed from other food because of the sacred nature it was accorded. Women were not permitted to touch this royal dish. In the Tuamotus, this marine reptile was offered up to the Spirits of the Ancestors before being consumed by the elders of the tribe during ceremonies on the marae. The turtle's shell and plastron were also used to make various tools and ornaments.